Alice Cunningham Fletcher
Alice Cunningham Fletcher (1838–1923) was an anthropologist, ethnologist, and one of the pioneering women in the field of Native American studies. Her work in ethnology was deeply influential, and her advocacy for Indigenous rights and welfare marked her as a passionate, if at times controversial, figure in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In a time when anthropology was predominantly a male-dominated field, Fletcher’s dedication to understanding Native American culture, particularly the Omaha tribe, led her to leave a lasting impact on the way Native American life, customs, and governance were understood. Her work has left a complex legacy—she was both an advocate for Indigenous welfare and an agent of assimilation policies. Fletcher’s life, therefore, sheds light on the complicated relationship between American ethnologists and Indigenous communities in her era.
Fletcher is best known for her work with the Omaha tribe in Nebraska. Driven by a genuine interest in understanding their ways of life, she undertook extensive ethnographic fieldwork, living with the Omaha and recording their social structures, kinship systems, and ceremonial practices. Her immersion into the Omaha culture allowed her to compile valuable data that would shape anthropological studies for years to come. She developed close relationships within the tribe, particularly with Francis La Flesche, a young Omaha man who later became her adopted son and collaborator. Together, they documented Omaha traditions in works such as The Omaha Tribe, a publication still cited in anthropology today. Fletcher’s collaborative work with La Flesche provided a respectful and detailed account of Omaha culture, setting a precedent for collaborative ethnographic research.
In addition to her contributions as an ethnologist and anthropologist, Alice Fletcher also took on the role of a surveyor—a unique position for a woman in her era and a function that underscored her deep involvement in Native American policy and land allocation. This aspect of her career is tied closely to her work with the Omaha and Winnebago tribes under the Dawes Act, where she was responsible for dividing communally held Native American lands into individual allotments. The aim was to grant parcels of land to individual Native families, a task requiring meticulous surveys and precise measurements to establish property boundaries.
Fletcher’s role as a surveyor was rooted in her belief that land ownership, as defined by Western property laws, would help Native Americans achieve economic independence. To her, conducting land surveys was not just about measurement and demarcation; it was a step toward what she saw as societal progress. She took this work seriously, personally overseeing the process and even navigating difficult terrain to ensure accurate and fair distribution. Fletcher's unique position as both an academic and a land surveyor gave her a hands-on role in the process, bridging her academic knowledge with practical applications on the ground.
Her survey work, however, contributed to a profound transformation in Native American life, often with unintended negative consequences. Although she intended to support Indigenous communities, the surveys ultimately led to large-scale land loss. Native Americans, unaccustomed to the imposed system of private property, were often persuaded to sell their parcels to non-Indigenous buyers, resulting in fragmented tribal lands. In many ways, Fletcher’s surveying efforts embodied the contradictions of her time—a genuine desire to help, constrained by limited perspectives on how Indigenous communities should evolve.
Fletcher’s dual roles as both a surveyor and ethnologist highlight the unique intersections of scientific inquiry, advocacy, and government policy that defined her career. The complexities of her surveying work serve as a cautionary tale, reminding modern civil engineers, surveyors, and policymakers of the importance of cultural sensitivity, community involvement, and the long-term impact of land policies on the communities they affect. Despite the controversies surrounding her legacy, Fletcher's efforts at surveying were pioneering for a woman at the time and reflected her unwavering dedication to both her craft and her convictions.
As scholars continue to examine Fletcher’s work, she is remembered as a complex figure—a pioneering woman in ethnology whose deep admiration for Native American culture was marked by an allegiance to policies that were ultimately harmful to the people she aimed to help. Her legacy serves as a reminder of anthropology’s complicated past and a call to modern ethnologists to approach their work with cultural sensitivity, self-reflection, and a commitment to advocacy that is aligned with the self-determined needs of Indigenous communities. Through this critical lens, Fletcher’s story offers valuable lessons for contemporary researchers working across cultures and serves as an example of both the progress and the pitfalls that come with breaking new ground in any field.
Author: Gabriela Yáñez González
Sources
Mark, Joan T. A Stranger in Her Native Land: Alice Fletcher and the American Indians. University of Nebraska Press, 1988.
Hinsley, Curtis M., and David R. Wilcox, eds. Coming of Age in Chicago: The 1893 World’s Fair and the Coalescence of American Anthropology. University of Nebraska Press, 2016.
Fletcher, Alice C., and Francis La Flesche. The Omaha Tribe. University of Nebraska Press, 1992 (originally published 1911).
Debo, Angie. A History of the Indians of the United States. University of Oklahoma Press, 1970.
Prucha, Francis Paul. The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians. University of Nebraska Press, 1984.
Gidley, Mick. Edward S. Curtis and the North American Indian, Incorporated. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
